1. 与本杰明・格雷厄姆在一起的一小时
《金融分析师》杂志允许重印,1976年11月、12月号,版权所有
转自《价值再发现:走近投资大师本杰明・格雷厄姆》第348-363页
巴特勒:格雷厄姆先生,非常感谢您给我这个机会在今天下午来拜访您。当鲍伯・米勒听说我们夫妇将到拉霍亚,他建议我来拜访您并带上我的录音机。我有那么多希望能够报道的事情。首先,让我们从一个众人瞩目的问题开始,与“政府雇员保险公司”相关,在新闻的标题中通常简称GEICO。
格雷厄姆:好的。事情是这样的,那帮人到了我们的办公室,进行了一番谈判之后,我们用72万美元买下了该公司的一半股份。后来,这家公司在股票市场上的市值超过了10亿美元。这是件令人震惊的事情。但是证券交易委员会强迫我们把该公司的股票在股东中进行分配,因为,根据法律上的技术问题,投资公司不允许持有保险公司10%以上的股份。杰瑞・纽曼和我在GEICO的经营中下了不少工夫,尽管我们都已经退休多年。我很高兴我现在与它毫无关系了,因为它现在可是损失惨重了。
巴特勒:您认为政府雇员保险公司(GEICO)能够生存下去吗?
格雷厄姆:是的,我想它会的。并没有基本性的理由决定它为什么不能生存下去,但是很自然的,我问自己为什么这家公司不顾导致巨大损失的可能性而一味快速扩张。想到他们在一年之内能够输掉那么多的钱,真让我不寒而栗。真是难以置信!近年来,为数不少的大公司一年之内能损失5000万到1亿美元,真是令人吃惊。现在的有些事情在过去真是闻所未闻,能够输掉那么多钱的人简直是天才。
巴特勒:回首您在投资领域的生涯,您认为什么是主要的发展或是主要的事件?您在1914年就进入华尔街了吧?
格雷厄姆:哦,首先发生的事对人们来说是很典型的。一开始工作时,作为特别优待,我一周的薪水是12美元,而不是像别的年轻人一样得到10美元。下一件大事是两个月以后,第一次世界大战爆发了,证券交易所因而关闭。我的薪水减到10美元,这对刚开始工作的年轻人来说是很普遍的。接下来的一件事对我来说的确非常重要,股票市场持续上涨了15年之后,在1929年崩盘了。
巴特勒:您是否预见了-您感到惊恐吗?
格雷厄姆:没有。我只是知道当时的股价过高了。我对那些投机者宠爱的股票袖手旁观。我觉得我所做的投资是很好的。但是我当时负债经营,这是个错误。我不得不在1929年到1932年这段时期艰难度日。从那以后,我再也不会重蹈覆辙了。
巴特勒:当时有没有人预见到1929年的股市崩盘呢?
格雷厄姆:巴布森(Babson)预见到了,但是他5年之前就开始卖股票了。
巴特勒:那么在1932年,您又回到了股市上吗?
格雷厄姆:哦,我们艰难地度过了那段时期。到了1937年,我们已经把财务状况恢复到了1929年的水平。从那时起,我们的经营非常顺利了。
巴特勒:对于1937年到1938年的那次股市崩盘,你们是否进行了充分的准备?
格雷厄姆:哦,那次股市崩盘使我们根据一位董事的建议,对操作程序做了一些改变,他的建议很有见地,所以我们采纳了他的意见。我们放弃了正在试图做的一些事情,而集中精力做好我们持续取得成功的业务。我们干得很好。在1948年,我们进行了对GEICO的投资,从那以后,我们成了声名赫赫的人物。
巴特勒:在那以后惟一的一段熊市中,也就是1940年到1941年之间,发生了什么事情?
格雷厄姆:那是一段典型的挫折时期。即使在那时,我们也赚到钱了。
巴特勒:在第二次世界大战爆发之后,你们仍然是赚钱的?
格雷厄姆:是的。我们在生意上并没有遇到真正的问题。这就是我为什么会失去兴趣的原因。在1950年之后,我们就没有遇到过挑战。到了1956年,我决定退休,并来到加利福尼亚来安度晚年。我觉得我已经把业务做到了这样的程度,不再有什么根本性的问题需要解决。我们沿着令人满意的基础前进,所遇到的问题也不过是以前遇到过的老问题再次出现罢了,我对解决这些老问题没有什么特别的兴趣。大约6年以后,我们决定出售格雷厄姆-纽曼公司,这样做的原因主要是继任者的管理不十分令人满意。我们觉得没有什么让我们特别有兴趣的东西。如果我们愿意,我们可以把生意做得很庞大,然而我们把我们的公司限制在不到1500万美元资本金的规模上,这在如今不过是九牛一毛罢了。让我们感兴趣的问题是我们是否能够每年挣到最大收益率。总的数额不是问题所在,而是我们能够做到多少年回报率。
巴特勒:您是何时决定写您的经典著作《证券分析》的?
格雷厄姆:事情是这样的,大约在1925年,我想我在华尔街已经工作了11年了,对它够了解的了,应该写一本关于华尔街的书。然而不幸的是,在我开始写作之前,我对主题的灵感多于我对它的了解。因此我决定先从教书开始。我在哥伦比亚商业学院做了一名附加课程的讲师。在1928年,我们有了证券分析和融资的课程,我想课程的名称是投资,我当时教150名学生。那时华尔街正处于鼎盛时期。结果到了1934年我才与大卫・多德一起开始写作。他是我在第一年教的学生。当时他是哥伦比亚商业学院的一名助教,很渴望学更多的东西。很自然地,他在我们写作这本书的过程中的作用是不可缺少的。该书的第一版在1934年问世了。事实上,与此同时我的一部剧作在百老汇登上了舞台,但只持续了一个星期。
巴特勒:您的一部剧作在百老汇登台演出?
格雷厄姆:是的。“宝贝庞帕度”(“Baby Pompadour”)或者叫做“忠于马里尼斯”(“True to the Marines”)。这部剧作以不同的名字制作了两次,没有取得成功。幸运的是,《证券分析》要成功得多。
巴特勒:那就是人们经常提到的“那本书”,对吧?
格雷厄姆:人们把它称为“格雷厄姆和多德的圣经”。哦,现在我已经对证券分析的细节问题失去了大部分兴趣,虽然许多年以来我辛辛苦苦,全神贯注地进行这方面的研究。我觉得这些细节问题相对来说是不重要的,而这在某种意义上来说,使我对整个行业在细节方面的发展持反对态度。我认为我们只要用一些技巧和简单的原则就可以做得很成功。关键之处在于总体原则正确并坚定不移。
巴特勒:我个人的经验是必须对不同行业进行研究,才能辨明管理方面的巨大差异。我认为这是分析师所能解决的问题。
格雷厄姆:哦,这一点我并不否认。但是我对于分析师们总体而言,在运用这些选股方法时,能在多大程度上取得成功怀有很大的疑问。我在过去几年着重强调的是投资于构成板块的股票。尽量购买满足价值被低估的简单标准的一组股票,不管它们属于什么行业,也不必过多关注个别上市公司。我近来写了一篇有关选择普通股的三个简单的方法的论文,刊登在你们的研讨会论文集中。我刚刚结束长达50年的研究,应用这些简单的方法选择构成板块的股票,事实上可以用于穆迪的工业股板块。我发现这50年来结果非常好。这些股票的涨幅大约是道・琼斯股指的两倍。所以我的热情从选择个股转移到了板块方面。我所期望的是大多数年份普遍利率两倍的收益率。也可以应用红利的发放情况作为标准或者资产价值作为标准。我的研究表明盈利标准能够产生最好的结果。
巴特勒:我总是认为我们用市盈率而不是盈利收益作为标准真是太糟了。认识到一支股票的盈利收益是2.5%比认识到它的市盈率是40倍要容易得多。
格雷厄姆:是的。盈利收益的概念更科学,也更合乎逻辑。
巴特勒:如果有50%的红利支出,可以用盈利收益的一半推测可持续的红利收益。
格雷厄姆:是的。基本上,我想盈利回报应该是利率的两倍。但是,在大多数年份,利率低于AAA债券所支付的5%的利率。因此,我制定了两个界限。即使利率低于5%,最高倍数为10,另一个倍数是现行的AAA债券利率的7倍,因此最高倍数在7~10之间。我的研究就是基于这一范围做出的。去年我在芝加哥荣获了莫罗道夫斯基(Molodovsky)奖。
巴特勒:我知道您的这项研究已经基本完成了。
格雷厄姆:想像一下,看起来似乎有种用不着费多少工夫就得到好的结果的傻瓜都会用的办法。这简直好得不像是真的。但是我能告诉你的是根据我从业60年的经验,它能够经得起我所能想出来的任何测试。我想试着请别人来提出批评意见。
巴特勒:由于某种巧合,就像您成为一位并不很活跃的作家一样,很多从事证券分析的职业分析师开始发展随机漫步理论。您对这种理论怎么看?
格雷厄姆:哦,我相信他们都是非常努力并且认真的。对我来说,很难发现他们的理论与实际投资业绩之间有什么站得住脚的联系。事实上,他们说市场是有效率的,是因为人们在此时刻不可能得到比已有更多的信息。这也许是对的,但是如果说信息传播得如此广泛以致于所产生的价格是合乎逻辑的,这就大错特错了。我不明白为什么人们说华尔街上的交易价格就是正确的价格,而正确价格的定义到底是什么。
巴特勒:从事实际分析的分析师们不能够为学术界的辉煌理论提供更多的补充和拾遗,这真是太遗憾了。
格雷厄姆:哦,当我们谈论买股时,就拿我本人来说,我在很实际地谈论美元和美分,利润和损失,主要是利润。我要说如果每股有50美元流动资金的股票售价是32美元,那么它是个值得注意的股票。如果你购买了30家像这样的公司的股票,你肯定能赚钱。这样做不会亏钱的。这种方法有两个问题。其中之一是,如果你以流动资金的2/3的价格买股票,你所购买的是否就是价值被低估的板块?我们自己的投资经历证实了这一点。第二个问题是,有没有其他的方法?
巴特勒:那么是否有其他的方法呢?
格雷厄姆:哦,我今天下午一直在讲的是运用简单的标准来衡量证券的价值。然而,其他人试图去做的是选出施乐公司和3M公司,因为它们的长期前景较好,或者判断明年半导体行业会有较好的表现。这些看起来都不是令人信赖的方法。其他很多方法都比这些方法要好。
巴特勒:您在30年前是否也这么说了呢?
格雷厄姆:哦,没有。我在30年前对此并没有采取这样的否定态度。但是我所采取肯定态度的是你能够找到足够的个别公司的价值被低估的事例。
巴特勒:主张有效市场理论的人们在某种程度上把水搅浑了,是吗?
格雷厄姆:哦,他们声称如果他们关于有效市场理论的基本论点是正确的,人们应当研究股票价格行为,并尽量从中获利。对我而言,这并不是个鼓舞人心的结论,因为我在华尔街60年所看到的是人们并不能够成功地预测股票市场的变化。
巴特勒:那是当然了。
格雷厄姆:你所要做的事是听听《华尔街周刊》(Wall Street Week)的说法,你能看出上面没有任何一篇文章具有股票市场将要发生什么事情的权威性或特殊见解。这些文章的作者们和那些经济学家们都有自己的观点,如果你问他们,他们很愿意表述他们的观点。虽然如此,我认为他们不会坚持说自己的观点是正确的。
巴特勒:您对于指数基金怎么看?
格雷厄姆:我对指数基金的看法很鲜明。我有种感觉,机构的基金,至少它们中的相当一部分,开始时应当以指数的概念加以管理,比方说,从标准普尔500种股票中选择100或者150支个股。然后交给基金的管理人斟酌处理的权力,只要他们愿意为他们所进行的改变承担个人责任。我假设给他们的报酬基本上或者以指数的方式加以衡量,比方说,标准普尔指数,或者以经理人进行改进的程度衡量。不过目前对此事进行的讨论中,大部分基金经理人不愿意接受这种观点,不接受的原因主要是他们认为,这种观点并非没有道理,但是它并不适宜,因为不同的投资者有不同的要求。我对他们所说的不同的投资者有不同的要求的说法从来没有信服过。所有的投资都要求有满意的回报,而我认为满意的回报对每个人来说都是几乎相同的。所以我觉得过去20年的经验表明投资者根据标准普尔指数就能够做得比进行大量的工作、搜集情报和讨论更好。
巴特勒:格雷厄姆先生,您对一个有志于成为证券分析师和注册金融分析师的年轻人有什么建议吗?
格雷厄姆:我想建议他们研究股票市场的历史记录,研究他们自己的能力,来确定他们是否能够找出一条投资的途径以达到他们的目标。如果他们已经这样做了,不管别人怎么做,怎么想,或怎么说,坚持走自己的路。我们以前在我们的生意中就是这么做的。我们从来不随波逐流,我认为这对于年轻的分析师的成长是有好处的。如果他们读过《聪明的投资者》,我觉得这本书比《证券分析》更有用,并且从他们认为可能会获利的方法中进行选择,我向他们推荐坚持走自己的路这种方法。我有个侄子,数年前进入华尔街时来向我咨询。我对他说,“迪克,我要告诉你一个切实可行的建议。你以平均15%的折扣购买封闭型的投资公司。让你的朋友们每月以一定的折扣价格投资于这些公司,这样你始终操纵这个游戏,事情会一帆风顺的。”他照这样做了,在此基础上,他比较容易地开始了事业。后来,牛市来临,他转向了其他领域,做了很多投机生意。不过我认为,至少他在开始的时候是在稳健的基础之上的。建立了稳健的基础,你就成功了一半。
巴特勒:您是否认为华尔街或者典型的分析师或基金经理人从激进型基金、成长性崇拜、个人独断的公司股票、双层市场中吸取了教训?
格雷厄姆:没有。他们过去常说他们什么都没忘记,也什么都没学到,我说那些华尔街上的人,总体而言,他们什么都没学到,却把所有的都忘掉了。我对他们将来是否会有改观也没有信心。我觉得这个贪欲的行业,存在着过度的希望,恐惧等等,只要人类存在就会时时刻刻伴随着我们。巴格浩特(Bagehot),这位英国经济学家曾说过一段名言,描述了恐慌是如何发生的。总体而言,只要人们有钱,就可以输钱,人们进行投机并把钱输掉,这样就发生了恐慌。我对于华尔街持嘲讽的态度。
巴特勒:不过华尔街上有一些独立思考的人在这个世纪里,他们的业绩不错,是吧?
格雷厄姆:的确,在华尔街取得成功必须具备两项要素。首先,你必须正确地进行思考;其次,你必须独立地进行思考。
巴特勒:是啊,正确地而且是独立地。太阳将要在拉霍亚升起来了,你认为华尔街将会有怎样的阳光?
格雷厄姆:哦,自1974年年中以来,当股票市场探底后,那儿一直阳光灿烂。我猜想华尔街始终未曾改变。现在的乐观情绪将会是过度的,继之而起的悲观情绪也将会是过度的。情况又会周而复始,这就是所谓的“费里斯”(Ferris)轮,或者跷跷板,转椅,无论叫什么名字。而目前,我的观点是,股票就总体而言还没有价值过高。然而似乎没有人担心1970年和1973年到1974年的悲剧在未来大约5年内有可能重演。你可以在道・琼斯平均指数上下个注。
巴特勒:这是一次非常令人愉快和振奋的采访。我们盼望着在夏洛茨维尔(Charlottes-ville)收到您的回忆录手稿。十分感谢您,格雷厄姆先生!
A Conversation With Benjamin Graham 1976 Financial Analysts Journal
A Conversation With Benjamin Graham
Benjamin Graham, senior author of Security Analysis, needs no introduction to the readers of this magazine [Financial Analysts Journal.] The Journal thanks Charles D. Ellis, a member of its Editorial Board, for making available this presentation, in question-and-answer format, to a recent Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette seminar.
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In the light of your 60-odd years of experience in Wall Street what is your overall view of common stocks?
Common stocks have one important characteristics and one important speculative characteristic. Their investment value and average market price tend to increase irregularly but persistently over the decades, as their net worth builds up through the reinvestment of undistributed earnings--incidentally, with no clear-cut plus or minus response to inflation. However, most of the time common stocks are subject to irrational and excessive price fluctuations in both directions, as the consequence of the ingrained tendency of most people to speculate or gamble--i.e., to give way to hope, fear and greed.
What is your view of Wall Street as a financial institution?
A highly unfavorable--even a cynical--one. The Stock Exchanges appear to me chiefly as a John Bunyan type of Vanity Fair, or a Falstaffian joke, that frequently degenerates into a madhouse--"a tale full of sound and fury, signifying nothing." The stock market resembles a huge laundry in which institutions take in large blocks of each other's washing--nowadays to the tune of 30 million shares a day--without true rhyme or reason. But technologically it is remarkably well-organized.
What is your view of the financial community as a whole?
Most of the stockbrokers, financial analysts, investment advisers, etc., are above average in intelligence, business honesty and sincerity. But they lack adequate experience with all types of security markets and an overall understanding of common stocks--of what I call "the nature of the beast." They tend to take the market and themselves too seriously. They spend a large part of their time trying, valiantly and ineffectively, to do things they can't do well.
What sort of things, for example?
To forecast short- and long-term changes in the economy, and in the price level of common stocks, to select the most promising industry groups and individual issues--generally for the near-term future.
Can the average manager of institutional funds obtain better results than the Dow Jones Industrial Average or the Standard & Poor's Index over the years?
No. In effect, that would mean that the stock market experts as a whole could beat themselves--a logical contradiction.
Do you think, therefore, that the average institutional client should be content with the DJIA results or the equivalent?
Yes. Not only that, but I think they should require approximately such results over, say, a moving five-year average period as a condition for paying standard management fees to advisors and the like.
What about the objection made against so-called index funds that different investors have different requirements?
At bottom that is only a convenient cliche or alibi to justify the mediocre record of the past. All investors want good results from their investments, and are entitled to them to the extent that they are actually obtainable. I see no reason why they should be content with results inferior to those of an indexed fund or pay standard fees for such inferior results.
Turning now to individual investors, do you think that they are at a disadvantage compared with the institutions, because of the latter's huge resources, superior facilities for obtaining information, etc.?
On the contrary, the typical investor has a great advantage over the large institutions.
Why?
Chiefly because these institutions have a relatively small field of common stocks to choose from--say 300 to 400 huge corporations--and they are constrained more or less to concentrate their research and decisions on this much over-analyzed group. By contrast, most individuals can choose at any time among some 3000 issues listed in the Standard & Poor's Monthly Stock Guide. Following a wide variety of approaches and preferences, the individual investor should at all times be able to locate at least one per cent of the total list--say, 30 issues or more--that offer attractive buying opportunities.
What general rules would you offer the individual investor for his investment policy over the years?
Let me suggest three such rules: (1) The individual investor should act consistently as an investor and not as a speculator. This means, in sum, that he should be able to justify every purchase he makes and each price he pays by impersonal, objective reasoning that satisfies him that he is getting more than his money's worth for his purchase--in other words, that he has a margin of safety, in value terms, to protect his commitment. (2) The investor should have a definite selling policy for all his common stock commitments, corresponding to his buying techniques. Typically, he should set a reasonable profit objective on each purchase--say 50 to 100 per cent--and a maximum holding period for this objective to be realized--say, two to three years. Purchases not realizing the gain objective at the end of the holding period should be sold out at the market. (3) Finally, the investor should always have a minimum percentage of his total portfolio in common stocks and a minimum percentage in bond equivalents. I recommend at least 25 per cent of the total at all times in each category. A good case can be made for a consistent 50-50 division here, with adjustments for changes in the market level. This means the investor would switch some of his stocks into bonds on significant rises of the market level, and vice-versa when the market declines. I would suggest, in general, an average seven- or eight-year maturity for his bond holdings.
In selecting the common stock portfolio, do you advise careful study of and selectivity among different issues?
In general, no. I am no longer an advocate of elaborate techniques of security analysis in order to find superior value opportunities. This was a rewarding activity, say, 40 years ago, when our textbook "Graham and Dodd" was first published; but the situation has changed a great deal since then. In the old days any well-trained security analyst could do a good professional job of selecting undervalued issues through detailed studies; but in the light of the enormous amount of research now being carried on, I doubt whether in most cases such extensive efforts will generate sufficiently superior selections to justify their cost. To that very limited extent I'm on the side of the "efficient market" school of thought now generally accepted by the professors.
What general approach to portfolio formation do you advocate?
Essentially, a highly simplified one that applies a single criteria or perhaps two criteria to the price to assure that full value is present and that relies for its results on the performance of the portfolio as a whole--i.e., on the group results--rather than on the expectations for individual issues.
Can you indicate concretely how an individual investor should create and maintain his common stock portfolio?
I can give two examples of my suggested approach to this problem. One appears severely limited in its application, but we found it almost unfailingly dependable and satisfactory in 30-odd years of managing moderate-sized investment funds. The second represents a great deal of new thinking and research on our part in recent years. It is much wider in its application than the first one, but it combines the three virtues of sound logic, simplicity of application, and an extraordinarily good performance record, assuming--contrary to fact--that it had actually been followed as now formulated over the past 50 years--from 1925 to 1975.
Some details, please, on your two recommended approaches.
My first, more limited, technique confines itself to the purchase of common stocks at less than their working-capital value, or net-current-asset value, giving no weight to the plant and other fixed assets, and deducting all liabilities in full from the current assets. We used this approach extensively in managing investment funds, and over a 30-odd year period we must have earned an average of some 20 per cent per year from this source. For a while, however, after the mid-1950's, this brand of buying opportunity became very scarce because of the pervasive bull market. But it has returned in quantity since the 1973-74 decline. In January 1976 we counted over 300 such issues in the Standard & Poor's Stock Guide--about 10 per cent of the total. I consider it a foolproof method of systematic investment--once again, not on the basis of individual results but in terms of the expectable group outcome.
Finally, what is your other approach?
This is similar to the first in its underlying philosophy. It consists of buying groups of stocks at less than their current or intrinsic value as indicated by one or more simple criteria. The criterion I prefer is seven times the reported earnings for the past 12 months. You can use others--such as a current dividend return above seven per cent or book value more than 120 percent of price, etc. We are just finishing a performance study of these approaches over the past half-century--1925-1975. They consistently show results of 15 per cent or better per annum, or twice the record of the DJIA for this long period. I have every confidence in the threefold merit of this general method based on (a) sound logic, (b) simplicity of application, and (c) an excellent supporting record. At bottom it is a technique by which true investors can exploit the recurrent excessive optimism and excessive apprehension of the speculative public.
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